Key Studies of the Cognitive Perspective and IA Possibilites

Find below a list of suggested IA topics provided by John Crane.
They are all key studies within the Cognitive Perspective which you need to study in depth.

A. Memory
Memory and the serial position curve:
Cunitz and Glanzer's study. Participants learn a long list of words and after a delay they have to recall as many as possible. The hypothesis is that people tend to remember the first and last words in a list due to the primacy and recency effects.

Improving memory: Imagery vs. rehearsal:
participants recall more words from a (20) word list when they use an imagery method (forming a vivid mental image and linking each item to the last in a dynamic fashion) than if they use either rehearsal (repeat each item until you hear the next) or no particular method (no prior instruction). Bower (1967); Paivio (1971).

Memory and levels of processing:
Craik and Lockhart hypothesize that the deeper and more meaningfully we process information the better subsequent recall will be. Participants are asked to process words either at a basic structural level like 'is the word in capitals?' or at a level requiring the comprehension of meaning e.g. 'is it something you can eat'? Participants would be expected to recall those words processed more deeply more successfully. Craik and Tulving (1975).

Eye-witness reports:
Loftus and Palmer (1974); Loftus and Zanni (1975). Participants asked how fast cars were going when they ‘smashed’ into each other, after viewing a car accident, report greater speeds than do participants asked the speed when they ‘hit’ each other. The former group are more likely to report seeing broken glass (when none is there) a week later.

The Cognitive Perspective

Introduction
Cognitive psychology is concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use and communicate information. Cognitive psychologists rejected the behaviourist assumption that mental events or states were unsuitable for scientific research.
In this unit you will examine the model-based approach often employed by the cognitive perspective. Issues of ecological and construct validity will be explored with regard to the methods employed by the perspective. Memory is the topic which we will study in depth.

Objectives

• Describe and evaluate the cultural context and development, the conceptual framework, the methodology, and the application of the cognitive perxpective.
  
• Describe and evaluate theories and empirical studies within this perspective.
  
• Explain how cultural, ethical, gender, and methodological considerations affect the interpretation of behaviour from a cognitive perspective.
  
• Compare theories, empirical studies and the conceptual framework of this model with the other perspectives.
  
• Identify and explain the strengths and limitations of cognitive explanations of behaviour.
  
• Explain the extent to which free will and determinism are integral in this perspective.
  
• Assess the extent to which concepts and models of information processing have helped the understanding of cognition.
  
• Assess claims that this perspective lacks ecological validity, and be able to consider alternative research methods.

Basic Assumptions

• Reductionist
• Mental processes can be studied scientifically.
• Deterministic (behaviour is assumed to be caused by the way in which in which it has been categorised, stored and retrieved)
• Mediational processes are at least as important as environmental stimuli in the understanding of behaviour.
• Developed in part as a reaction against the learnng theory (particularly behaviourism).
• Cognitive processes actively organize and manipulate information that we receive - humans are not passive responders to their environment. Soft determinism.
• Models of psychological functions can be proposed.

Read this article on the assumptions and basics of cognitive psychology

Read Glassman pages 150-154

See overview of the cognitive approach (Hill, page 18)

See this handout for a brief overview of the basics of the information processing model.

Historical Development and Cultural Context

• Challenges to behaviourism (such as cognitive maps)
• The use of the computer model
• Impact of the Second World War (such as the need to understand or predict cognitive processes)
• The development of brain scan technology

Read this handout on the historical and cultural conditions that gave rise to the cognitive approach. Also see this link for notes on historical and cultural conditions.

See this handout for how the cognitive perspective contributes to the scientific study of behaviour.

Question:

Explain how one historical and cultural condition helped give rise to the cognitive perspective (8). (IB Paper 1)

Key Concepts (see this handout)

Memory (Glassman pages 155-174)

Using the information in Myers chapter 9, the revision pages from the Hill guide and blog links you are to prepare a presentation on the following:

1) Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory: Describe each store (in terms of capacity, duration and encoding) and give details of any relevant studies. For the long-term memory remember to include full detail (i.e. procedural, declarative etc).

2) The multistore model of memory (describe, evidence, evaluation)

3) Levels (depth) of processing model (describe, evidence, evaluation)

4) Working memory (describe, evidence, evaluation)

5) Theories of Forgetting

See this link for details of the three main models of memory; remember to also refer to the revision sheets from Hill.

Link 1 Models of Memory

Link 2 Memory Theory

Link 3 Levels of Processing

Link 4 Working Memory and another link and an evaluation link.

Link 5 Theories of Forgetting

May 05

a) Outline one assumption of the cognitive perspective (2)

b) Identify one key concept based on the assumption outlined in part a and explain the relationship between the two (6)

HL Student Presentations

Memory Stores

Multi Store Model

Levels of Processing

Working Memory

Theories of Forgetting

Eye-Witness Testimony

Elizabeth Loftus- The main name in EWT.

Here is an example of the problems of EWT from survivor accounts from the Titanic- link.

An article of the main points of reconstructive memory- link

A project on EWT- link

Culture and Memory

See this link.

Reading: Read this link called 'It s magical. It s malleable. It s..memory'.

1) What is the relationship between memory and selfhood?

2) What new discovery about memory do you find most interesting?

3) What is the "hormunculus crisis"?

4) Which theory of dreams finds support in the experiments of Lynch?

5) How can memories become indelible?

6) How can amnesia and repression be explained?

7) Explain the following statement: "memory is more reconstructive than reproductive'.

8) What new paradigm of memory is now emerging?

9) After reading this article what conclusions can you make about memory?

Cognitive styles- what's yours?

May 03

a) Outline one assumption on which the cognitive explanation of human behaviour is based (4)

b) Choose one research study to demonstrate how the assumption described in part a underpins a cognitive explanation of human behaviour (4)

May 03

a) Describe one model of information processing that helps in the understanding of one aspect of human cognition (10)

b) Using psychological theory and/or research, evaluate the model described in part a (10)

Nov 04

Assess the extent to which one concept or model of information processing has helped in understanding cognition (20)

Student plans:

SL(C)- See link 1 2 3 4 5

SL(D)- See link 1 2 3 4 5

Theoretical Explanations of Behaviour

Cognitive Dissonance (Glassman pages 191-192)

Perceptual Set (link)

Read this handout.

May 04

a) Describe one cognitive explanation of human behaviour, making reference to one empirical study (4)

b) Describe one strength and one limitation of this explanation of human behaviour (4)

Methodologies

Methods- Read this handout

Laboratory experimentation
Clinical interviews
Verbal protocols (and the cognitive interview)

Strengths and Limitations of Methods (i.e. ecological validity)

Ethics and contoversies of research (i.e. use of human participants and use of non-human animals for research)

Nov 03

a) With reference to one research study, describe the main features of one method of investigation used by cognitive psychologists (4)

b) Outline one strength and one limitation of this method (4)

Nov 04

Choose one cognitive research study that could be considered to be controversial

a) Outline the method used in the study (4)

b) Explain why the study is considered controversial (4)

May 05

Describe and evaluate methodologies used in the cognitive perspective (e.g. experiments, interviews, verbal protocols).

Nov 05

a)Briefly describe the method used in one empirical study from the cognitive perspective (4)

b) Describe one ethical strength and one ethical limitation of this method (4)

Application

Strengths and limitations of the perspective in explaining psychological or social questions e.g. aggression, gender differences, stress.

Application of the theories and findings of empirical studies from the cognitive perspective. Contribution of the cognitive perspective to areas such as education (how and what to teach), work (e.g. use of eyewitness testimony), treatment (e.g. self-instructional training). Read this handout and this handout.

Contributions

Read this handout for details of how this perspective contributes to the scientific study of behaviour and its current standing.

Nov 03

To what extent is determinism integral to the cognitive perspective. Illustrate your answer using relevant theories and studies (20)

May 06

Evaluate the contribution of the cognitive perspective to the scientific study of behaviour (20)

The Humanistic Perspective

Assumptions of the Perspective
Please use this link to view a brief ppt presentation

- Humans are intrinsically good.
- Humans have free will; not all behaviour is determined
- All individuals are unique and have an innate drive to achieve their maximum potential
- A proper understanding of human behaviour can only be achieved by studying humans - not animals.
- Psychology should research areas that are meaningful and important to human existence, not neglect them because they are too difficult. Psychology should be applied to enrich human life.
- Psychology should study internal experience as well as external behaviour.
- Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).
- The whole person should be studied in their environmental context.

History
See this powerpoint for a brief summary of the emergence of the third force in psychology.

Humanistic psychology emerged as a third force during the late 1950’s in the United States as an alternative to the deterministic orientations of behaviourism and psychoanalysis. There was a powerful element of European existentialism and phenomenology present in the earliest years of development, but humanistic psychology has now developed into an eclectic movement that attracts a diverse range of theorists.
Humanistic psychology’s emphasis on the possibility of personal growth and change found immediate acceptance. The methodology applied by humanistic psychologists tends to use alternatives to those focusing on quantification and scientific rigour, but often produces useful data. The humanistic perspective is not applied universally, perhaps because of its emphasis on the individual and its optimistic view of human potential.

A link for an article on the history and development of Humanism


Read Glassman pages 254-257 Introduction to the Humanistic Approach


What was existentialism? See this link for an overview ppt
A philosophical debate- existence precedes essence

November (2005) Explain the influence of one historical or cultural condition on the rise of the humanistic perspective (8)

Carl Rogers
Read Glassman pages 257-271 for full details of Rogers theory

A simple guide to Rogerian Humanistic psychology- see this link.

Evaluation- Empirical research related to Rogers. See this link.

Abraham Maslow
Read Glassman pages 271-282 for full details of Maslow's theory.
A brief powerpoint explaining Maslow's theory.

A simple guide to the key aspects of Maslow's theory- See this link.
For a more detailed look at his life and his theories- See this link.

Evaluation- Empirical research relating to Maslow. See this link.

A theory of human motivation- Key study by Rogers- See this link.

Viktor Frankl

Read Glassman pages 282-287 for details of Frankl's theory

See this link for a look at the Viktor Frankl institute in Vienna.

Frankl and the humanist perspective- see this link.

Martin Seligman (Learned Helplessness)

Here is a pretty in-depth article on learned helplessness.

Read Glassman pages 287-290 for details of Seligman's and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's theories.

Here is a simple overview of Csikszentmihalyi's ideas and some famous quotes.

Rollo May

See this link for an overview of his life and theories.

Applications and Overview

See this link for an overview of humanistic and existentialism.

Humanism and Education-See this link.

Person-Centred Therapy- See this link.

People need help finding what makes them happy- therapy. See this link.

Overview and evaluation- see this link.

See this link for a more complete explanation of the cultural and historical development of humanistic psychology.

Methodology

See this link for information on the person-centred approach.

Q-Sort

Case Studies

Interviews

Applications

Rogers and informal education (link)

Rogerian Therapy (link) and Client Centred Therapy (link)

Motivation and Sports Psychology (link)

Strengths and Weaknesses

Highlights the value of more individualistic and idiographic methods of study.

Emphasizes the importance of self-actualization, responsibility, freedom of choice, and social context in therapy.

Their belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science.

They seek the unique aspects of individuals, rather than producing generalized laws of behaviour.

They investigate issues such as emotion and consciousness which are difficult to study objectively.

There is some question as to the cross-cultural relevance of the highly individualistic approach.

Qualitative data provides more holistic information, but also is more difficult to apply.

May 05

a) Identify two contributions of the humanistic perspective to the study of behaviour (2)

b) Explain and evaluate one of the contributions identified in part a (6)

May 03

a) Describe one method used by humanistic psychologists to collect data (4)

b) Explain how the method of data collection described in part a reflects the interpretation of behaviour from a humanistic perspective (4)

Current Standing

Research positive psychology and Seligman.

The Learning Perspective

See this link

What do you remember from chapter 5

Chapter 5 Quiz
1. Psychodynamic theories are disinguishable from other approaches because of their concern with
A) the influence of past experiences on behaviour
B) the factors which shape personality
C) what motivates behaviour
D) all of the above

2. Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is called a Psychodynamic theory because
A) it is also a type of therapy
B) it emphasises the influence of mental forces on behaviour
C) of the emphasis placed on discrete neurological processes
D) it collects data in clinical settings

3. Freud's theory is based on the principle of psychic determinism, which assumes
A) the environment shapes the way we think
B) mental processes are governed by neural activity
C) behaviour is controlled by a non-physical spirit
D) all behaviour is based on mental causes

4. Freud agreed with all of the following ideas about behaviour EXCEPT
A) biologically-based drives are an important influence on behaviour
B) normal behaviour is based on different processes than abnormal behaviour
C) many thoughts and impulses are unconscious
D) clinical case studies are useful in understanding behaviour

5. If a person complains of a physical symptom, such as numbness in their hand, yet there is no physiological explanation, Freud would describe it as
A) sublimation
B) a form of catharsis
C) hysteria
D) latent content

6. If a patient in therapy began recalling a traumatic memory, and became emotional about it, Freud would say
A) this was an undesirable loss of conscious control
B) it was a useful form of catharsis
C) such memories were produced by the dream censor
D) a hysteria reaction could be manifesting itself

7. Freud often asked patients to say whatever came into their mind, as a way of trying to understand the individual's problems. This technique is based on
A) the idea that there are always patterns of associations in the mind
B) trying to catch the unconscious mind off guard
C) trying to eliminate repression
D) the use of catharsis as a clinical tool.

8. Sarah goes to see Dr. Zhivago, who is a psychoanalyst. He asks her to lie on a couch, and say whatever comes into her mind. The technique he is using is
A) sublimation
B) free recall
C) catharsis
D) free association

9. Freud observed that there are many thoughts and feelings which we are unaware of at a particular moment, but which can be brought into awareness.In his theory, these thoughts and feelings are part of the
A) conscious
B) preconscious
C) unconscious
D) none of the above

10. According to Freud's theory, repression can lead to experiences being held in the
A) conscious
B) subconscious
C) preconscious
D) unconscious

11. When he woke in the morning, John recalled a dream in which he had won a large prize in a lottery, but lost the ticket. This description is what Freud would call
A) an example of wish fulfillment
B) the manifest content of the dream
C) the latent content of the dream
D) content which eluded the dream censor

12. Freud argued that while we sleep, a dream censor is active, whose function is to
A) express the values of the superego
B) convert the dream into symbolic form
C) prevent any symbolic fulfillment of forbidden desires
D) hide the true meaning of the dream by creating latent content

13. Sue likes shopping, and always seeks out new clothing stores. However, she hates doing housework, and usually ignores the mess in her apartment. Freud would explain this behaviour in terms of
A) the law of effect
B) the principle of hedonism
C) the pleasure principle
D) the expression of Thanatos

14. When Freud described "sexuality" as an important drive, he meant
A) fantasies, not real behaviour
B) the desire for physical intercourse
C) only heterosexual sexual impulses
D) all forms of physical and sensual pleasure

15. Herman test-drives a new sports car at a dealer's. Although he really likes it, he decides that he can't afford to buy it. This assessment of what is realistic is characteristic of
A) the id
B) the ego
C) the superego
D) both the id and the superego

16. Freud believed that newborn infants are basically governed by the
A) id
B) ego
C) superego
D) reality principle

17 Twelve-year-old Hugh sees a CD he wants in a store. He is tempted to steal it, but doesn't because he knows it is wrong. Freud would say his decision is governed by
A) the id
B) the ego
C) the superego
D) none of the above

18. Which of the following statements about Freud's psychodynamic theory is correct?
A) The ego is largely unconscious.
B) The superego is responsible for reality-testing.
C) The ego is equivalent to the conscience.
D) The id is the source of basic drives.

19. Freud described rational thought as ___________, and stated that itwas associated with the ______.
A) primary process thinking; id
B) primary process thinking; ego
C) secondary process thinking; id
D) secondary process thinking; ego

20. According to Freud, infants engage in primary process thinking, which is associated with the ______, and which is intended to __________
A) id; reduce tension
B) ego; test reality
C) superego; satisfy drives by wish fulfillment
D) ego; repress drives

The Psychodynamic Approach

The term psychodynamic denotes the active forces within the personality that motivate behaviour, and the inner causes of behaviour. While Freud's was the original psychodynamic theory, the approach includes all those theories based on his ideas.

Read the newspaper article 'The Father of Psychoanalysis' and answer the following questions.

Introduction to psychodynamic psychology
1) Historical and Cultural Contexts.
In order to fully understand Freud's theories you first need to have an appreciation of the era in which he was writing.
Read Pages 204- 206 in Approaches to Psychology.

For this task you will need to get into groups to prepare and present a presentation to the rest of the group on one of the following topics:

- 19th Century Victorian Society
- 20th Century events 1900-1945
- Vienna in the late 19th and 20th centuries
- Science in the late 19th and 20th centuries
- Freud's family background, education and major life experiences

Information on Freud can be found at one of the Freud museum pages:
London

Vienna

Freud Exhibition

Freud, his theories and life in Vienna

General information about his life and the influence of other people can be found at this link.

Essay- At this point in the year you are not ready to attempt a full IB question, such as, describe the historical and cultural context of the development of the psychodynamic perspective. Instead I would like you to write a 350-400 word essay:
Essay: Discuss the historical and cultural context of Freud's theories of behaviour.

2) Frued's Theories- Read pages 206- 233 in Approaches to Psychology

Pages 206-207 Notes on Psychic determinism

Pages 207-209 Notes on Freud's theory of consciousness
(Students to prepare comparison table)

Pages 209-210 Notes on dreams
(Fun dream analysis)

Pages 211-212 Notes on instinctive unconscious drives

Pages 213-214 Notes on the tripartite theory of personality
(Pictorial representation of the mind and personality)

Pages 214-223 Notes on the 5 psychosexual stages of development
See the PPT presentation

Pages 223-228 Notes on defence mechanisms and Link 1, Link 2, Link 3

Pages 229-233 Freud's methods of investigation

Psychoanalytic Theories Overview Powerpoint

3) Freud Video (The Young Dr Freud)

Techniques forResearch
Freud used the case study method when treating his clients (seeing them individually and investigating them in detail) often using the clinical interview method to probe their past and question their behaviour.

See The Little Hans Case Study and others

Answer these questions on the Little Hans case study handed out to you.

Free Association

Dream Interpretation

Freudian Slips

Using these web sites and pages 229-233 in Approaches to Psychology you need to complete a table of all of Freud's methods of investigation. You need to describe each method, give an example of when this was used (if applicable) and detail the strengths and weaknesses of each method.

A) Outline one or more techniques used for research in psychodynamic psychology (6)

B) Evaluate the techniques outlined in question A (14)

Evaluation of Freud
Using a variety of sources you need to name and explain a range of strengths and weaknesses of the Psychodynamic theory- these can be general evaluative points, methological issues, clinical validation of concepts, experimental validation of concepts etc.
Sources:

Glassman Pages 233-238

Empirical Research

Psychoanalysis Effectiveness

Relevance of Freud today

Essay
Describe and evaluate the structure and functioning of the persoanlity in Freudian psychoanalytic theory (20).

The Neo-Freudians

There are a number of other Psychodynamic theories other than that of Freud. These are collectively known as the Neo-Freudians:
Jung
Erikson
Klein
Adler
Horney

You will get into groups and prepare a presentation on one of the neo-Freudians. This will be assessed- see the presentation rubric


Essay:
a) Outline two neo-Freudian theories (3)
b) Explain how these theories modify classic psychoanaytic theories (3)
c) Evaluate the contribution of one of the neo-Freudians theores to the understanding of
human behaviour (14)

What do you know about Freud
Take this not so serious quiz to find out.

How can this approach be applied to everyday living?
Read this article published in Psychology Today- Think Like a Shrink

Psychological Perspectives

You have been reading about and participating in class discussions about why all psychologists do not agree. In psychology there are a number of different approaches (perspectives) that a psychologist can work from. I have prepared a short powerpoint to summarise the key people in psychology and the main approaches that we will be studying this year.

History of Psychology

Approaches to Psychology
Introductory Questions

Read pages 2,3,4 & 5 and answer the following questions.
1. Define the term ‘Psychology’
2. Define ‘the scientific method’
3. Which two early psychologists studied
their own behaviour and how?
4. What were the problems with the early
method of introspection?
5. What is reactivity and give an example
6. Give some examples of what can cause
behaviour
7. Why does psychology have many
different approaches/perspectives to explain human behaviour?

Read pages 6-12